Case Analysis Effectiveness

The benefits of case analysis include topic research beyond the material offered in class.  While researching the topic of the case analysis, I exposed myself to a plethora of scholarly articles that expanded my knowledge about the subject, its challenges, and an updated insight.

Unfortunately, my current career, an airline captain, does not involve research and academic writing.  In the future, I expect to undertake safety roles within the airline where case analysis studies will be a valuable tool.  Another future venture will be continuous education towards a PhD where case analysis will be a corner stone in such a demanding academic endeavor. 

The case analysis proposal came early by the second week of the course.  The material offered in the course is rich and tackles subjects that are not intuitively related to the realm of UAS.  Hence, the student cannot possibly foresee how the subject will develop to contain the prospective learning outcomes.  The required paper is lengthy and a shorter paper can produce the same learning outcome.

Writing an abstract about a topic that is underdevelopment was challenging. The peer reviews on the rough draft contributed greatly to the structure and the content of the paper.

UAS in the NAS

How can the separation of unmanned aircraft be monitored and maintained (among other unmanned aircraft and manned aircraft) in the National Airspace System (NAS)? What considerations need to be made for varying sizes (i.e., Group 1 to 5) and airframes of UAS (e.g., fixed-wing, rotary-wing, and lighter than air)? What technology is currently employed by manned aircraft and is it adaptable for use with unmanned?

UAS integration in the NAS- Research

An aircraft in flight under VFR conditions fulfills the separation required from other traffic in reliance on the pilot’s visual perception.  An IFR flight relies on a number of airborne systems to achieve the separation between traffic.  Most of these systems are transponder based, like the automatic dependence surveillance- broadcast (ADS-B), the secondary surveillance radar (SSR), and the traffic collision and avoidance (TCAS).  In 2012, the FAA published a roadmap for unsegregated integration of UAS into the national airspace (NAS), the requirement to achieve a sense and avoid (SSA) capability equivalent or better than manned flights is a primary requirement to allow such operation.

ATC control relies on SSR broadcast by aircraft transponder to provide and monitor traffic separation, operating in busy airspace classes A, B, C, and D requires a transponder as a prerequisite for all participants.  UAS are expected to rely on modified variants of transponder-based systems to achieve the anticipated SAA function.

Transponders are classified as types A, C, or S.  The main difference is the capability to transmit an increased number of flight parameters (Angelov, 2012).

ADS-B represents an improved variant of the transponder system.  However, it can transmit a large number of parameters, and it can uplink data communication to the aircraft.  The datalink can be ground based or satellite based.  It is anticipated that future systems will rely on ADS-B technology to downlink UAS flight parameter and will allow the uplink of executable ATC commands.

UAS will require a collision avoidance function that is similar to TCAS.  When the UAS encounters a conflicting traffic, it will dully follow the resolutions issued by the collision avoidance function and this will have priority over any control command until the conflict situation is resolved (Angelov, 2012).

UAS operations in the NAS will require a variety of equipment.  In general, the larger and more autonomous vehicles will require more complex sense and avoid equipment.  Smaller UAS may utilize cellular communications as their datalink (Angelov, 2012).  Larger UAS will require alternatives that are more sophisticated.  Highly autonomous UAS need to assure safe operations under all conditions, which requires system redundancies, and well-established protocols that cover abnormal and failure situations.

References

Angelov, P. (2012). Sense and avoid in UAS. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley.

Austin, R. (2010). Unmanned air vehicles. Chichester, West Sussex, U.K.: Wiley.

SKYbrary. (2016). Automatic Dependent Surveillance Broadcast. Retrieved 10 October 2016, from http://www.skybrary.aero/index.php/Automatic_Dependent_Surveillance_Broadcast_(ADS-B)

Pre 70's Vs. post 2000's UAS technology

History of UAS

Lockheed D-21

       The Lockheed D-21 was intended as a high speed, high altitude reconnaissance Unmanned Air System (UAS).  It is based on Lockheed A-12, which was a piloted CIA aircraft.  The UAS operated at a speed in excess of Mach 3 and at an altitude of 90,000 feet and had an operational range of 3,000 nautical miles ("Lockheed D-21B (Article 525) - Flight Test Historical Foundation", 2016).  It was deployed at a high altitude utilizing an A-12 aircraft modification, which was designated M-21 (M for mothership).  The UAS then operated utilizing a ramjet engine. Following an accident, which lead to the crash of an M-21 in 1966, another deployment method underwing of a B-52 was devised and a solid propellant booster was added to the UAS (Merlin, 2016).

            Following a launch, a D-21 will fly a predesignated route set into its navigation system.  The payload consisted of a high-resolution camera, an INS navigation system, an air data computer, and an automatic flight control system.  At the end of a mission, the payload separated and the UAS self-destructed.  A C-130 airplane would then recover the parachuted payload (Goodall & Goodall, 2002).

        The project commenced its test flights on 1964 and lasted until 1969.  Only four operational sorties were conducted over China between 1969 and 1971, the aim was to collect aerial photography of the Lop Nor nuclear site.  The first mission failed to set course back to friendly territory and crashed over the USSR, the second mission failed when the payload failed to detach, the third failure was during the recovery attempt, the final attempt also failed to accomplish a safe return and crashed over China.  The high failure rate and the high mission cost, approximately 5.5 million US, lead to the termination of the project in 1971 ("Lockheed D-21B (Article 525) - Flight Test Historical Foundation", 2016).                 

Boeing X-37

       The Boeing X-37 is a reusable and autonomous unmanned space shuttle.  The shuttle launches utilizing a space rocket before it deploys to orbit. After mission completion, the X-37 returns to base conducting an automatic landing (Halvorson, 2012).  The first mission orbited for 224 days, the last mission stretched the endurance to 674 days in orbit (Smith-Strickland, 2016).

        NASA's collaboration with Boeing to develop the X-37 began in 1999; however, in 2004 DARPA took over the project and then transferred it to the U.S. Air Force in 2006.  The purpose of this project has not been officially declared.  Independent agencies and nations like Russia and China are skeptical about the peaceful intentions behind the project; however, U.S. officials reported that it is a developmental project of new space technology and a testing bed for advanced sensory technologies (Halvorson, 2012).

References

Donald, D. (2003). Black jets. Norwalk, Conn.: AIRtime.

Goodall, J. C. & Goodall N. D. (2002). "Senior Bowl–the Lockeed D-21". International Air Power Review. Norwalk, Connecticut: AIRtime Publishing.

Halvorson, T. (2012). Air Force's mysterious X-37B launched. azcentral.com. Retrieved 27 March 2016, from http://www.azcentral.com/news/articles/20121211air-force-space-plane-launch.html

Lockheed D-21B (Article 525) - Flight Test Historical Foundation. (2016). Flight Test Historical Foundation. Retrieved 22 October 2016, from http://afftcmuseum.org/exhibits/blackbird-airpark-exhibits/lockheed-d21-article-525/

Merlin, P. (2016). Lockheed D-21B (Article 525) - Flight Test Historical Foundation. Flight Test Historical Foundation. Retrieved 22 October  2016, from http://afftcmuseum.org/exhibits/blackbird-airpark-exhibits/lockheed-d21-article-525/

Rogoway, T. (2015). Foxtrotalpha.jalopnik.com. Retrieved 27 March 2016, from http://foxtrotalpha.jalopnik.com/we-finally-know-something-about-what-the-shadowy-x-37b-1700434054

Smith-Strickland, K. (2016). What’s the X-37 Doing Up There?. Air & Space Magazine. Retrieved 22 October 2016, from http://www.airspacemag.com/space/spaceplane-x-37-180957777/?no-ist

UAS detect sense and avoid trials

ESTABLISHING BASELINE REQUIREMENTS FOR A UAS GROUND-BASED SENSE AND AVOID SYSTEM

The FAA is currently focusing its efforts on the safe integration of UAS in the national air space NAS in an unsegregated manner.  One of the suggested methods is the development of a ground based sense and avoid system GBSAA.  This system will become part of the NextGen airspace and will enable the safe operations of UASs.

The FAA is conducting its tests at New York Griffiss International Airport.  The current facilties at the airport are capable of providing cooperative and non-cooperative surveillance of UASs operations within designated airspace allocations to test the new operation of the new system.  The airport employs a combination of system installations that allow wide area multi-literation (WAM), ADS-B, and 3D primary radar to track air traffic.

The baseline requirements consist of employing a WAM capability to locate all aircraft transponder transmissions and calculate a pinpoint position based on multi-literationd of the transmission. This is the core of an already existing system for monitoring aircraft movement at airports and terminal areas called Advanced Surface Movement Guidance and Control Systems (A-SMGCS).

A-SMGCS is defined by ICAO in as “a system providing routing, guidance and surveillance for the control of aircraft and vehicles in order to maintain the declared surface movement rate under all weather conditions within the aerodrome visibility operational level (AVOL) while maintaining the required level of safety.”

The ASDE-X is a U.S. variant of the A-SMGCS. The system provides the following fundamental capabilities:

1) 2-D Airport Surface Situation CWP Display

2) Controller Conflict Alerts

3) Surveillance and System Data Recording

4) Surveillance Data Distribution

References

Young, R., & Brenton, S. (2016). Establishing baseline requirements for a UAS ground-based sense and avoid system. Paper presented at the 8D4-1-8D4-10. doi:10.1109/ICNSURV.2016.7486385

Integration of weather modification technology into UAS

This is a brief review of weather modification techniques integral able with UAS.  Axisa and DeFelice (2016) who presented a recent article titled “Modern and prospective technologies for weather modification activities: A look at integrating unmanned aircraft systems”

The review is based on the work of

One of the popular weather modification techniques is cloud seeding, which aims towards harvesting of cloud rain content over where rainfall is preferable.

The utilization of UASs in weather modification techniques allows a more precise and updated measurement of the atmosphere, which results in an increased efficiency in applying the weather modification techniques.  Seeding techniques become efficient when applied properly according to real-time updates of the cloud state.  Conducting weather modification operations falls under the dull, dirty, and dangerous popular association of mission characteristics to UASs.  Compared to manned missions, UASs have the following advantages: Ability to work in remote locations and locations in the vicinity of challenging terrain for elongated periods of time, and improved data acquisition about the cloud state.

An UAS for weather modification will consist of a sensory payload to perform atmospheric measurements and seeding equipment.  Small UAS, in the scale of 10’s of Kgs, are capable of performing sensory measurements, however, larger UAS, in the scale of 100’s ok Kgs, with a heavier payload allowance are required to perform the seeding part.

References

• Axisa, D., & DeFelice, T. P. (2016). Modern and prospective technologies for weather modification activities: A look at integrating unmanned aircraft systems. Atmospheric Research, 178-179, 114-124. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2016.03.005

Sense and Avoid in UAS

The regulatory authorities require the human operator to be capable to see and avoid obstacles and other traffic.  The FAA requires all unmanned aircraft to fulfill the certification requirements of manned aircraft including the see and avoid capability.

Since the unmanned vehicle will not transport humans in the near future, the purpose of a sense and avoid function does not necessarily aim towards saving the vehicle, rather than to prevent collision with other traffic and save humans and property from collateral damage.

A sense and avoid function requires a set of sensory equipment to perceive an impending threat and a computational tool to produce the adequate avoidance resolutions.  A sense and avoid function will continuously monitor the surroundings and provide information to allow the vehicle to operate within a zone of adequate separation or command a maneuver to escape a collision zone.

The available technologies can fall into cooperative or non-cooperative categories.  The cooperative technologies involve a negotiating process between two converging traffic.  The non-cooperative requires one traffic to react to another traffic solely based on its sensory capabilities.

Angelov, P. P., & Books24x7, I. (2012). Sense and avoid in UAS: Research and applications(Second;1; ed.). Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons.

Hottman, S. B., Hansen, K. R., & Berry, M. (2009). Literature review on detect, sense, and avoid technology for unmanned aircraft systems.

Surveillance UAS

The military utilized Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS) in different roles throughout the history of flight.  However, the applications evolved over time from performing simplified drone roles to the highly autonomous capabilities of nowadays systems like the global hawk RQ-4.

One civilian application for an UAS in the fiend of naval surveillance is shark detection and early warning for beachgoers. Typically, UAS are a suitable replacement for the dull missions of continuous loitering and surveillance. Additionally, the cost and noise signature of a manned aircraft flying continuously at low altitudes highly favors an UAS alternative.  To further cut down cost and, simplify operations, and reduce ancillary equipment, an autonomous option with a reprogrammable route is preferable (Capizzi, Boxoen, Blake, & Shen, 2007).

In Australia, the state of New South Wales decided to implement a shark-spotting program.  A helicopter-like, long range, and battery powered aircraft was chosen to fulfill the program objectives.  The payload consists of advanced visual sensors and shark identification algorithms.  The aircraft will undergo tests for delivering life saving devices to people in emergencies (Bogle, 2016).

A comparable military vehicle is MQ-8B and MQ-8C Fire Scout.  This UAS fulfills the purpose of Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance (ISR), target-acquisition, laser designation, and battle management to tactical users.    The aircraft’s baseline payload equipment consist of electro-optical/infrared sensors, a laser designator, and UHF/VHF communication for data transfer across the network participants and voice communications relay (Petty, 2016).  A ground control station can provide support to several aircraft at the same time. The size, payload, and engine type are significantly different from civilian models.  The two models are based on two different airframes. 

 References 

 August 2016, from http://mashable.com/2016/02/28/shark-spotting-drones-australia/#DgHSG1fSKZqs

Bogle, A. (2016). Shark-spotting drones to patrol the skies above Australian beaches.Mashable. Retrieved 16  

Capizzi, V., Boxoen, T., Blake, M., & Shen, A. (2007). ICSV14.

Petty, D. (2016). The US Navy -- Fact File: RQ-8A and MQ-8B Fire Scout Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV). Navy.mil. Retrieved 16 August 2016, from http://www.navy.mil/navydata/fact_display.asp?cid=1100&tid=2150&ct=1

Research: Request for Proposal - RFP

Mission type

The Unmanned Aircraft System (UAS) will bead used by the firefighting command post for surveillance, reconnaissance and search and rescue operations in wildfire outbreaks.  The timeframe for developing the product from baseline requirements will be one year.

 Baseline requirements

Payload

1.      Shall be capable of color daytime video operation up to 500 ft. AGL.

2.      Shall be capable of infrared (IR) video operation up to 500 ft. AGL.

3.      Shall be interoperable with C2 and data-link.

4.      Shall use power provided by air vehicle element.

Command & Control (C2)

1.      Shall be capable of manual and autonomous operation.

2.      Shall provide redundant flight control to prevent flyaway.

3.      Shall visually depict telemetry of air vehicle element.

4.      Shall visually depict payload sensor views.

Data-link (communications)

1.      Shall be capable of communication range exceeding two miles visual line of sight (VLOS).

2.      Shall provide redundant communication capability (backup) for C2.

3.      Shall use power provided by air vehicle element.

Derived requirements

Payload

1.      Shall include a self-stabilized HD camera with zoom suitable for a range of 500 ft. AGL.

2.      Shall include a multi scale IR heat detection camera suitable for a range of 500 ft. AGL.

3.      Shall include a communication module with a dual channel for C2 and datalink.

4.      Shall include a battery capable of supporting the additional electric requirements of the payload as a third priority beside the electric motor and the communication.

Command & Control (C2)

1.      The Auto Flight Control shall have a dual mode of autonomy and remote control.

2.      The Auto Flight Control shall contain a dual channel where the second channel will autonomously perform an RTB navigation and landing.

3.      The control station shall be a touch screen military grade PED that integrates a display of housekeeping parameters upon request.

4.      The control station screen will display imagery from the HD video camera and a multi scale image of IR imagery colored according to heat intensity.

Data-link (communications)

1.      A directional gain-seeking antenna shall provide Beyond Line of Sight (BLOS) communication with low attenuation for a range of two miles minimum.

2.      An omnidirectional antenna provides a backup channel for C2.

3.      The battery shall be capable of withstanding the communication electrical demand as a second priority beside the electric motor and the payload.

Test requirements

Payload

1.      HD video and IR camera test for self-stabilization in turbulent thermal conditions and image enhancement for various temperatures and smoke obstructions.  

2.      Communication module allows dual channel operations without mutual interference.

3.      Battery capacity loading to assure proper power supply along different load and temperature regimes.

Command & Control (C2)

1.      The AFC will be connected to a simulation program and the autonomous ability will be tested in a range of sensor inputs, and the relay of RC inputs to servos will be simulated (Austin, 2010).

2.      The AFC backup channel will be tested for situations of primary channel electric failure or lack of integrity. Upon activation of the backup channel, a simulation of homing function will also be tested to demonstrate an autonomous RTB navigation and landing.

3.      Display of housekeeping data and health and usage monitoring system HUMS will be checked for integrity and latency. The CS software will be checked for automatic call up of unhealthy parameters, and automatic identification of operational state of the UAS (Austin, 2010).

4.      Raw images will be tested against filtered images to demonstrate the correct processing of digital HD video and IR images.

Data-link (communications)

1.      Test of the directional gain-seeking antenna shall demonstrate correct tracking of the aircraft at different antenna height configurations and assure Beyond Line of Sight (BLOS) communication with acceptable attenuation for a minimum range of two miles.

2.      Assure that the omnidirectional antenna starts transmission upon latency of primary C2 channel within a two mile range.

3.      The battery capacity and electric load controller shall be ground tested for reliability at different charge states and electrical loads.

Development process

The development concept for realizing the top-down product will be utilize a Rapid Application Development (RAD) approach.  This will assure a high quality system against the cost restrictions, and take advantage of iterative processes for the similar system components, especially that all components are COTS (Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services, 2008).

  Design rationale

The design will be based on a fixed wing aircraft powered by a forward electric propeller.  The airframe will be composite light weight material.  The wing span will assure adequate left at low speed and low motor demand to assure adequate endurance and reduce battery size. The UAS will be hand launched and will be capable of withstanding landing impact utilizing skids.  The UAS will be detachable to allow transport in a light weigh box together with the antenna and CS.

References

Austin, R. (2010). Unmanned aircraft systems: UAVS design, development, and deployment. Chichester, West Sussex, U.K: Wiley.

Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services. (2008). Selecting a development approach. Washington, DC: Department of health & Human Services, Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services. Retrieved from http://www.cms.gov/Research-Statistics-Data-and-Systems/CMS-Information-Technology/XLC/Downloads/SelectingDevelopmentApproach.pdf

UAS Application in Atmospheric and Weather Observation

The current weather services predict weather based on observations from various sources like a network of ground stations, balloon launches, weather radars, and weather satellites.  These sources suffer from restrictions. For instance, weather radars and ground stations are limited to their locale (UAS Weather Project, 2016). 

UAS utilization in weather prediction is characterized by its mobility and ability to track weather systems and weather phenomena.  Due to its inherent ability to operate for elongated periods, UAS can track the development of weather systems from the time of inception until dissipation.  UAS are especially useful in penetrating hazardous phenomena like tornados and thunderstorms (Cox, Nagy, Skoog & Somers, 2004). 

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NAOO) started to utilize UAS as early as 2005.  One of its systems is predicated on the Global Hawk.  The unique ability of the Global Hawk to operate continuously at very high altitudes makes it a crucial asset in surveillance operations targeting hurricanes and thunderstorms.  The system will provide accurate hurricane predictions over longer periods (Reese, 2014). 

Another system is the Pilatus.  It is lightweight and targeted for arctic regions.  The main purpose is the detection of greenhouse gases and generally examining the atmosphere in the polar area (de Boer et al., 2016).

The weather tracking applications utilizing UAS are somewhat restricted by the current regulations and the lack of ability to operate in all areas of the NAS.  There are also technological challenges to the niche.  Most of the projects are experimental in nature and involve deferent sets of sensors, target specific data collection, and involve different project development schemes (Axisa & DeFelice, 2016).

References

Axisa, D. & DeFelice, T. (2016). Modern and prospective technologies for weather modification activities: A look at integrating unmanned aircraft systems. Atmospheric Research, 178-179, 114-124. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2016.03.005

Cox T., Nagy C., Skoog M., Somers I. (2004). Civil UAV Capability Assessment. Retrieved from https://www.nasa.gov/centers/dryden/pdf/111761main_UAV_Capabilities_Assessment.pdf

Hurricane-Proof Drones Are the Storm Chasers of Tomorrow - D-brief. (2014).D-brief. Retrieved 2 May 2016, from http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/d-brief/2014/09/08/future-hurricane-drones/#.Vyag9zB97Dd

de Boer, G., Palo, S., Argrow, B., LoDolce, G., Mack, J., & Gao, R. et al. (2016). The Pilatus unmanned aircraft system for lower atmospheric research. Atmos. Meas. Tech., 9(4), 1845-1857. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/amt-9-1845-2016

NASA Armstrong Fact Sheet: Ikhana Predator B. (2016). NASA. Retrieved 2 May 2016, from http://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/news/FactSheets/FS-097-DFRC.html

OSU selected by NSF for UAS Weather Project | Unmanned Aircraft Systems. (2016). Unmanned.okstate.edu. Retrieved from https://unmanned.okstate.edu/node/77

Reese, A. (2014). Hurricane-Proof Drones Are the Storm Chasers of Tomorrow. Discover. Retrieved from http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/d-brief/2014/09/08/future-hurricane-drones/#.VyahxjB97De

Weeding Out a Solution!

Problem statement

A UAS is to be designed for precision crop-dusting. In the middle of the design process, the system is found to be overweight.

• Two subsystems – 1) Guidance, Navigation & Control [flying correctly] and 2) Payload delivery [spraying correctly] have attempted to save costs by purchasing off-the-shelf hardware, rather than a custom design, resulting in both going over their originally allotted weight budgets. Each team has suggested that the OTHER team reduce weight to compensate.
• The UAS will not be able to carry sufficient weight to spread the specified (Marketing has already talked this up to customers) amount of fertilizer over the specified area without cutting into the fuel margin. The safety engineers are uncomfortable with the idea of changing the fuel margin at all.

Write a response describing how you, as the Systems Engineer, would go about resolving this issue. Use your imagination, and try to capture what you would really do. Take into account and express in your writing the things you’ve learned so far in this module: What are your considerations? What are your priorities? What do you think about the future prospects for the “next generation, enhanced” version of the system as a result of your approach?